Indonesia’s trajectory through history has been intricately shaped by a convergence of factors, including its geographical positioning, abundant natural resources, human migrations, wars, conquests, trade dynamics, and political evolution. As an archipelagic nation spanning 17,000 to 18,000 islands in Southeast Asia, Indonesia boasts a diverse population exceeding 270 million people. The roots of its civilization trace back some 40,000 years, and by the 8th century BCE, favorable agricultural conditions and the practice of wet-field rice cultivation laid the groundwork for the flourishing of villages, towns, and small kingdoms. The 1st century CE marked the arrival of Hinduism and later Buddhism, ushering in an era witnessing the ascendancy and decline of influential empires like Majapahit, Shailendra, Srivijaya, and Mataram. Breaking free from three and a half centuries of Dutch colonial rule, Indonesia achieved independence post-World War II. Presently, the nation is celebrated for its natural splendor, diverse cultural heritage, and global contributions to art, music, and cuisine. It stands as one of the world’s fastest-growing economies and a pivotal player in the Southeast Asian region.
Gunung Padang
Indonesia, a historical crossroads shaped by cultural exchanges, boasts a rich tapestry of influences from Indian, Chinese, later Arab, and European civilizations. Gunung Padang, or “mountain of enlightenment” is a megalithic site in West Java, epitomizes this history, often considered the world’s oldest pyramid. Located atop an extinct volcano, it features five terraces bordered by stone retaining walls, accessible through 370 andesite steps. Sacred to the Sundanese people, it reflects the nation’s cultural amalgamation. Discovered in 1890, it gained heritage status in 1998 and was declared a National Site Area in 2014, covering 29 hectares. Indonesia’s tropical climate and drastic climatic changes over the past 15,000 years have contributed to the burial and concealment of ancient cultural remains. Recent research suggests Gunung Padang may be at least 27,000 years old, making it a focal point for spiritual exploration. A 3–4-hour drive from Jakarta, the site offers breathtaking views and attracts attention from archaeologists and researchers, with continuous efforts aimed at unraveling its profound history.
The National Archaeological Institute spearheaded Gunung Padang’s restoration in 1985, elevating it to a Provincial-level Cultural Heritage Site by 1998. Initial analyses highlighted its vast megalithic features, notably the stone terraces, known as punden berundak, a feature unprecedented in scale at Gunung Padang (Bintarti, 1982; Ramadina, 2010; Sukendar, 1985). Subsequent archaeological investigations until 2005 involved limited excavation pits, and although radiocarbon dating was absent, assumptions placed its prehistoric construction between several hundred and a couple of thousand BCE, aligning with regional megalithic cultures in Asia (Kim, 1982). The extensive field survey from October 2011 to October 2014, with detailed mapping, geological and archaeological observations, shallow geophysical surveys, excavation trenches, and core drillings, revealed Gunung Padang as a complex underground construction with substantial chambers and cavities, challenging previous notions (Bintarti, 1982; Yondri, 2017). Carbon dating indicates its construction during the last glacial period in the Palaeolithic era, with subsequent modifications in the Holocene or Neolithic era (Natawidjaja et al., 2023). A recent study (Natawidjaja et al., 2023) strongly suggests that Gunung Padang, initially perceived as a natural hill, is a pyramid-like construction with meticulously sculpted andesite lava as its core, surrounded by layers of rock constructions. Carbon dating supports the multi-layer construction’s extensive history, with the oldest construction originating as a natural lava hill sculpted during the last glacial period between 25,000 and 14,000 BCE. Abandoned for millennia, it experienced significant weathering. Around 7900–6100 BCE, intentional burial of one unit with substantial soil fills occurred. A subsequent builder arrived between 6000 and 5500 BCE, constructing another unit. The final builder, between 2000 and 1100 BCE, constructed the last unit. This challenges conventional beliefs by revealing advanced masonry skills dating back to the last glacial period, contrary to the notion that such skills emerged only during the warm early Holocene or Neolithic period with the advent of agriculture. The burial of these structures around 9000 years ago adds intrigue, suggesting Gunung Padang’s enduring importance.
This archaeological study at Gunung Padang showcases advanced masonry skills uncommon in traditional hunter-gatherer cultures. Seismic exploration of the site’s interior unveiled concealed cavities and chambers, some with dimensions of 15 meters in length and 10-meter-high ceilings. The Natawidjaja et al. (2023) research team aims to conduct further excavations and explore these chambers with cameras to reveal the mysteries hidden beneath. This study emphasizes the importance of combining archaeological, geological, and geophysical methods to comprehensively study ancient structures.
Ancient pyramids can be found in various parts of the world, and recent discoveries and scientific studies by Indonesian researchers provide evidence that Gunung Padang may date back as far as 27,000 years. This proposed timeline not only surpasses the age of the first colossal Egyptian pyramid, the 4,600-year-old Pyramid of Djoser, but also predates the oldest recognized megalithic site, Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, built by stonemasons around 11,000 years ago (Lewis, 2023). This revelation significantly reshapes our understanding of the history of human civilization in the region. Moreover, it prompts profound questions about the universality of certain mystical and spiritual principles, as pyramids are found across diverse cultures, from Mexico and Latin America to Egypt, suggesting a connection to spiritual rites, rituals, and a deeper comprehension of our existence.
Bali
Nestled in the heart of Southeast Asia, Indonesia, with Bali as its crown jewel, beckons travelers with a rich tapestry of cultural and natural wonders. From lush rice paddies and ancient Hindu temples in Nusa Dua and Ubud to Kuta’s bright beaches and vibrant surf culture or the tallest volcano, snorkeling, and fishing village experience on foot in Amed, or nature and waterfalls in Munduk, Indonesia offers a captivating blend of experiences. In this post, I try to connect Indonesian and Indian cultures with a focus on the captivating spiritual allure of Bali, its deep-rooted Hindu heritage, and the enduring legacy of the revered sage Agastya Muni. There are many ways to experience the visit, including a jump over to Java, and 3 to 5 days in each place depending on one’s interest is ideal for the best immersion experience, whether it be nature, temples, food, or yoga.
For U.S. travelers embarking on this journey, understanding key details is crucial. A Visa on Arrival (VOA) for Indonesia, attainable with a valid passport and proof of travel, allows a 30-day stay, extendable if needed. Beyond logistics, respecting local customs is paramount. Visitors are encouraged to immerse themselves in Balinese traditions, such as removing shoes and dressing in modest attire when entering temples and homes. Bali’s commitment to safety makes it a welcoming destination for solo female travelers.
Bali’s Historical Background
The intricate dance between Hinduism and Indonesia’s cultural tapestry unfolds throughout history. Indian sea traders and Brahmins introduced Hindu concepts of Shaivism and yoga philosophy.
Indonesian royalty actively embraced the philosophy and practices, fostering the assimilation of Hindu and, much later, Buddhist ideas into the pre-existing fabric of native folk religion and animist beliefs. Balinese Hinduism is thus characterized by the amalgamation of Indian religious influences and indigenous animist practices, including concepts such as dharma, equilibrium, karma, and moksha. Hinduism significantly influences Indonesian culture through preserved ancient rituals, ongoing deity worship, and the incorporation of philosophical tenets. Using Hindu terminology in inscriptions symbolizes Indonesia’s effort to express its realities through sacred Sanskrit literature. Balinese Hinduism, rooted in Vedic texts and ancient philosophies, has endured for centuries as the primary faith, sustained through rituals, traditions, and artistic expression.
Agastya Muni’s Profound Impact
At the heart of Bali’s Hindu heritage lies the profound influence of Agastya Muni, who has played a crucial role in disseminating Hinduism, extending its reach from the Sindhu Valley across India, Southeast Asia, China, Japan, and Indonesia. This influence is palpable in the widespread adoption of Hindu philosophical and theological treatises, integrating them seamlessly into the cultural fabric of Indonesia as well. Another significant dimension of Agastya Muni’s impact lies in the cultural synthesis facilitated by members of the Agastya family, who became preceptors of royal dynasties. His teachings played a pivotal role in harmonizing the cultures of North and South India, contributing substantially to national integration and leaving a lasting impression on Indonesian culture in Java and Bali. The influence of Agastya Muni extends to Javanese literature, particularly evident in the ancient Javanese text Agastya Parva. Here, he intricately describes the world’s creation in puranic style, shaping the literary landscape and contributing to the overall cultural development of the region.
Legend has it that Agastya Muni is one of the Saptarishis and, thereby, a direct disciple of Adiyogi (Shiva) and lived an extraordinary span of 4000 years. His life, deeply intertwined with Indian and Southeast Asian history, contributed significantly to the region’s religious, cultural, and literary heritage. Rishi Agastya’s teachings, particularly Saiva Siddhanta, Vedic science, and the Pallavan Grantha script, significantly influenced Javanese society. This impact is evident in the establishment of Hindu temples and the dissemination of philosophical treatises. Rishi Markandeya’s arrival in Bali is another crucial milestone in Balinese socio-religious development, emphasizing the lasting influence of Indian sages like Agastya Muni. Agastya Muni’s legacy extends to the presence of his sculptures in Hindu temples across South and Southeast Asia, including early medieval Shaiva temples in Java, showcasing the enduring impact of his teachings on the spread and development of Hinduism in the region.
Agatsya Muni’s teachings and the incorporation of his iconography into temple complexes are enduring testaments to his legacy’s profound and lasting impact on the spread and development of Hinduism in Indonesia. The influence of Agastya Muni resonates in Indonesian temples like the Clown Temple, early medieval Shaiva temples in Java, the iconic Prambanan, and the 6th-century Dasavatara Temple. These structures stand as testaments to the widespread adoption of Agastya Muni’s teachings in temple art and architecture. Temples in this area simply need to be experienced – from the intricate architecture to observing the rituals and immersing oneself in the vibrant energies, the encounters are truly indescribable.
Bali’s steadfast adherence to Hinduism amid Indonesia’s current predominantly Muslim context is a result of historical, cultural, and geographical factors. The island’s isolation shielded it from Islamic influences, and the influx of Javanese aristocrats after the Majapahit Empire’s fall contributed to the rejuvenation of Hinduism. Bali’s syncretic Hinduism, blending with pre-existing animistic beliefs, cultural practices, festivals, and the strategic role of tourism, has ensured the faith’s resilience and continuity.
Cultural preservation stands as another critical factor in Bali’s adherence to Hinduism. Balinese Hinduism draws from the unique spiritual traditions of the Nusantara, with the enlightenment of saints who have inhabited the land for millennia. The island boasts over 20,000 temples, each dedicated to distinct virtues, regions, or categories, contributing significantly to the preservation of both cultural and religious heritage.
However, syncretism of cultures might be overemphasized as there are cultural and religious issues in Indonesia between Hindus and Muslims. A prohibition on Muslims engaging in certain forms of yoga was instituted in Indonesia. In 2009, the Indonesian Ulemas Council promulgated a religious decree proscribing the participation of Indonesian Muslims in yoga practices that incorporate pre-Hindu religious elements, such as meditation and chanting. The rationale behind this prohibition was rooted in apprehensions that engaging in such yoga could potentially undermine the religious convictions of Muslims. Although not legally binding, it was anticipated that a substantial majority of Indonesia’s Muslim populace, constituting 90% of the country’s population, would adhere to the decree. The Council’s directive permitted the practice of yoga exclusively for purposes of physical exercise or sport, explicitly targeting yoga involving Hindu rituals. This stance was influenced by analogous prohibitions in neighboring Malaysia, where a ban on yoga remained in force during that period.
Regardless of issues, Indonesia, unlike India, seems not to have as much of an issue with its Hindu past. With its enchanting landscapes and deep-rooted Hindu heritage, Bali is a testament to the intricate interplay of endurance, history, culture, and spirituality. Vegetarian food is easy to find, and it is common to see idli and poha at breakfast buffets. These areas are to be explored at leisure, so it is best to plan the trip accordingly and build space for unexpected, self-created deviations to adjacent small towns or participation in nature and sports activities. As travelers immerse themselves in the island’s vibrant traditions and explore the echoes of Agastya Muni’s teachings in this land of spirituality, it feels like a historical journey where time has stood still and yet not. Bali’s enduring cultural identity is worth experiencing. Aum Swasti Astu.
References
Bintarti, D. D. (1982). Punden berundak di Gunung Padang. Berkala Arkeologi, Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional.
Kim, B.-M. (1982). Megalithic cultures in Asia. Hanyang University Press.
Lewis, D. A. (2023). 27,000-year-old pyramid? Controversy hits an extraordinary archaeological claim. Retrieved from: A 27,000-year-old pyramid? Controversy hits an extraordinary archaeological claim (nature.com)
Natawidjaja, D. H., Bachtiar, A., Nurhandoko, B. E. B., Akbar, A., Purajatnika, P., Daryono, M. R., … & Maulana, Y. (2023). Geo‐archaeological prospecting of Gunung Padang buried prehistoric pyramid in West Java, Indonesia. Archaeological Prospection.
Ramadina, S. P. (2010). Analisis perupaan situs megalitik Gunung Padang di Cianjur, Jawa Barat. J.Vis.Art & des. ITB, 4(1), 51–66.
Sukendar, H. (1985). Tinggalan tradisi megalitik di daerah Cianjur. Laporan Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional.
Yondri, L. (2017). Situs Gunung Padang: Kebudayaan, manusia, dan lingkungan (Gunung Padang Site: Culture, human, and environment) (p. 337). PT Semiotika.
Images: Pyramid images from https://pagaralampos.disway.id/read/650117/inilah-sejarah-penemuan-4-fakta-di-gunung-padang-benarkah-dulunya-menjadi-tempat-pemujaan-simak-disini; Bali temple and doorway from Pexels