Roles in Society and Caste
The dharmasastras are fundamental to Indian culture and civilization. The Brahmanic social ideology, or caturvarnasramadharma (“dharma of four varṇas and four stages of life”), shapes all traditional social, economic, and religious aspects of Indian life (Uspenskaya, 2024). The caste system, Varnashrama Dharma, was initially designed as a functional division of labor, organizing society according to different responsibilities and skills needed. Caste served as a classroom, training people in craft, trade, or governance from generation to generation. This infrastructure served as an educational framework before education was streamlined.
A person born to a Hindu father inherits a Hindu identity and Jati and Kula identities. They inherit their father’s family background, occupation, religious practices, and lifestyle markers like diet and clothing, which define their jati status. These markers help individuals assess their status, compare it with others, and regulate their behavior according to prescribed rules of commensality. Caste is an exogamous subdivision (Gonsalvez, 1954) where the system outlines four primary castes, each contributing to societal needs (Tagore, 1884). Imagine different limbs of a body, making the greater body function. Social tradition states that varṇas are made up of various jatis. While “caste” and “subcaste” are commonly used to translate jati, these terms do not fully capture their meaning (Uspenskaya, 2024). Shudras handled essential tasks focused on other forms of manual labor. While often framed as menial, these roles are vital for sustaining the infrastructure and day-to-day life of the community. This is no different in other societies – although they do not call it caste necessarily – blue-collar workers are essentially the Shudras who take care of societal maintenance. Vaishyas formed the entrepreneurial and trade-oriented class, driving economic growth and stability through commerce, agriculture, and resource management. Their contributions extended beyond business as well, as many used to support education, temple construction, and community welfare, cultivating domestic and international economic networks and helping foster regional development.
Kshatriyas are traditionally warriors and rulers, mainly responsible for protection and governance. Their responsibilities involved training and leading armies, defending and expanding territories, and establishing and enforcing laws, much like the roles of today’s politicians and bureaucrats. Their discipline came from intense training in warfare and statecraft, skills traditionally passed down through generations long before modern education systems existed. Meanwhile, Brahmins, as the intellectual and spiritual guides of society, took on roles such as teaching, performing religious ceremonies, and providing ethical advice to Kshatriyas and others. They served as the keepers of cultural and spiritual values, working to uplift society through wisdom and moral leadership. Initially emphasizing functionality and interdependence, the system became vertical and hierarchical over time, mainly due to imperial and colonial forces combined with corruption in the dharmic structure of the society, leading to exploitation and vertical discrimination. This issue and its implications will be further discussed below.
Gotras and Kula Devas
Gotras, caste, and Kula Devas form an interconnected social and spiritual organization system in Dharmic societies. Gotras define lineage and are discussed in the Rigveda (Rahurkar, 1972; Ruegg, (1976), while caste determines social divisions based on lineage. Kula Devas represent the ancestral spiritual guardians of specific clan-family lines. This intricate framework traditionally governs marriage choices, spiritual practices, and social interactions by maintaining genetic, cultural, and divine connections within family and societal structures.
Gotras and Kulas have long shaped family structures and spiritual practices (Brough, 1946) in the Indian subcontinent for centuries. The relationship between Gotras, Kula Devas, and caste is rooted in a profound understanding of lineage and genetics. Gotras, which trace descent from a common ancestor – often traced back to a Saptarishi – are passed down through the male line and signify unbroken familial lineages.
The concept of gotras offers the rationale for discouraging marriages within the same Gotra, reflecting an innate understanding of genetics, good health, and diversity. The pattern of marrying outside of the Gotra thus generates minimal issues with genetic and possibly other disorders. In ancient times, for example, a Bania from Bengal traveling for business to Rajasthan can find a Bania spouse as they will have many things in common – values, eating habits, etc. – which are conducive to generating progeny protected by similar Kula (or clan) Devis and Devatas. Gotras represent lineage and heritage, playing a significant role in arranging marriages—a tradition often misunderstood and criticized without a deeper appreciation of its original development. Caste and Gotra also shape spiritual practices and rituals unique to specific clan-based lineages, helping to preserve ancestral identity and maintain a sense of continuity within families. This is where the Gotra-specific Kula Devis and Devatas play a role.
The creation of Kula Devas, or family deities, has existed since time immemorial in Dharmic societies, including pagan societies outside of the Indian subcontinent. These deities are consecrated divine forces associated explicitly with particular families or clans. Often, their origins are intertwined with the broader cosmology of the Hindu pantheon.
Historically, divine architects like Deva Shilpi Viswakarma created Kula Devas (and Devis, implied), who shaped these deities as part of the dharmic order established by Parabrahman, the supreme cosmic spirit. This process involved creating various divine forms that would serve as spiritual guides and protectors for human families on Earth. Kula Devas are closely linked to ancestor worship as they are seen as divine manifestations of the family’s ancestral spirits and are integral to rituals that honor these ancestors.
Initially, Kula Devas emerged as a response to communities’ needs for protection and guidance. As societies developed, people continued to revere these entities that helped the clan’s prosperity and bloodlines while guarding them against harm. This belief system laid the foundation for the worship of Kula Devas, which even became formalized as part of culture and religion. These deities are ever-present in one’s life as they are integrated into family traditions and rituals, becoming divine central figures in maintaining generational spiritual and ritualistic continuity.
Kula Devas impacts marriage choices. Families seek unions that align with spiritual beliefs and practices, ensuring compatibility in traditions. Shared devotion to a Kula Deva often serves as a governance strategy for the caste clan and a foundation for resolving disputes and strengthening family ties. Even today, families perform rituals and visit temples dedicated to their Kula Devis and Devas during significant life events such as births, marriages, tonsuring, and other ceremonies. Kula members seek protection, preserve tradition, and hope for generational and generational prosperity. Upon marriage, women often adopt the Kula Deva of their husband’s family while maintaining a connection to their birth family’s deity, depicting their integration into both lineages. For example, my Kula Devi is Brahmani Mata, while my Mother’s Kula Devi is Ghel Mata, and she worships both female divinities. Kula Devas and their worship remain integral to many Hindu households till the present day.
Contemporary Society
Marriages, caste, and Kula Devas are interconnected aspects of Dharmic society, influencing marriage and voting (this will be addressed in another write-up). Traditions trying to curtail marriages within Gotra sometimes result in honor killings and social ostracism, particularly in rural areas (Kaushal, 2020). Though inter-caste marriages are prevalent, they remain relatively not as popular, at least in India, mainly due to the innate knowledge that the progeny generated from these unions will not have “full protection” (for lack of better terms) of the Kula Devas. The traditional practice and notion of the roles of caste, gotras, and kulas are being challenged with the advent of non-dharmic religions and their footprint in traditional Hindu society, not to mention the Marxist education system, which further deracinates practicing dharmics from their caste, clan, Gotra, religion, spirituality, and even food practices.
According to the 2011 census, only 5.8% of marriages in India were inter-caste unions (Gurusamy, 2019). This reflects the enduring influence of caste and traditional practices on marriage choices, including the worship of Kula Devas (family deities). Education, employment, and urbanization contribute to an increase in inter-caste unions, and some state governments in India offer financial incentives for such marriages, especially when one partner is from a lower caste (Hortacsu et al., 2019).
To conclude, societal challenges persist in understanding the intent of caste, Gotra, clans, and kula. As Indian society continues to be influenced by Western ideas and uprooted from traditional culture and practices, the interplay between traditional practices like Kula Deva worship and modern attitudes towards caste-based marriage remains to be seen.
References
Brough, J. (1946). The early history of the Gotras. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 78(1-2), pp. 32–45.
Gonsalvez, P. C. (1954). Caste and Society in India (Master’s thesis, Fordham University).
Gurusamy, S. (2019). Dalit empowerment in India. MJP Publisher.
Hortaçsu, A., Hwang, S. I. M., & Mathur, D. (2019). Monetary incentives on inter-caste marriages in India: Theory and evidence. Journal of Development Economics, 141, 102371.
Kaushal, K. (2020). No honour in honour killing: Comparative analysis of Indian traditional social structure vis-à-vis gender violence. ANTYAJAA: Indian Journal of Women and Social Change, 5(1), 52–69.
Rahurkar, V. G. (1972). The Origin of the Gotra-System in the Ṛgveda. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 53(1/4), 93-99.
Ruegg, D. S. (1976). The Meanings of the Term Gotra and the Textual History of the Ratnagotravibhāga1. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 39(2), 341–363.
Tagore, S. M. (1884). The caste system of the Hindus. Printed at the Catholic orphan Press.
Uspenskaya, E. N. (2024). Caste and Jāti. Kinship, 4(1).
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