The Six Darshanas
This write-up explores the age and origins of Yoga, delving into its connection with Indian philosophical traditions, especially within historical literature.
Various philosophical systems have originated in India, including human evolution and physiology theories. Among these, Yoga stands out as a significant philosophy as it has made a massive impact around the globe. The broader landscape includes six primary philosophical schools known as shad darshana or the six darshanas, each considering the Vedas as authoritative texts. These darshans serve as philosophical outlooks and tools for self-discovery, such as the yoga darshana, which emphasizes meditation, contemplation, and the eventual goal of liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
The six primary darshanas—Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta—are classified into Astika (orthodox, accepting Vedas) and Nastika (heterodox, not accepting Vedas) traditions. Yoga Darshana, which focuses on discipline and meditativeness, is part of the Astika schools. Nastika philosophies include Jainism, Buddhism, Carvaka, and Ajivika. Cognitive development in Eastern thought stems from self-inquiry, exploring fundamental questions about existence, creation, and individual roles. Yoga literature is pivotal in addressing these questions, offering practical guidance grounded in experiential knowledge. In our contemporary age, where tangible experiences are highly valued, Yoga’s evidence-based approach has contributed to its enduring popularity for health and spiritual pursuits.
Samkhya darshana, the second major darshana, explores cosmology and the Self. Despite its name, Samkhya deals not with numerology but with the science of spirit or atman, examining attributes of human nature broadly classified as pure, impure, causal, subtle, and gross. Yoga Darshana, derived partially from Samkhya, serves as the philosophy of human psychology, sharing common principles related to the purpose of existence and experience.
Vedanta serves as the philosophy of Reality, representing the initial central Darshana. The terms “Veda” and “anta” collectively signify the culmination of knowledge, reflecting the mind’s exploration of its limits and the subsequent understanding gained from this exploration. According to Vedanta, the individual Self stands apart or is alienated from its Source—the transcendental Ground, the supreme Self, or param-atman, also known as the Absolute Brahman. The binary concept of dualism, known as Advaita, is interpreted differently by various schools. Some perceive the finite Self in conjunction with the phenomenal universe as a mere illusion or a superimposition of Reality, while others view it as natural but entangled in a state of estrangement from the ultimate Reality. Dvaita (dualism) and Advaita (non-dualism) emerge as the two dominant systems shaping the understanding of one’s true Self.
Nyaya Darshana, another central philosophy, centers on logic, recognizing spiritual experiences acknowledged by the mind. This philosophy distinguishes experience from fantasy, emphasizing discernment while experiencing our true nature. Vaisheshika Darshana functions as a treatise on subtle, causal, and atomic principles related to the matter, along with four other elements of the spirit or atman, explaining concepts behind the idea of existence.
Poorva Mimamsa, meaning prior study, delves into dharma as a virtue, morality, and duty. It posits that dharma is an essential ritual, making karma or action imperative in attaining or maintaining dharma. Uttara Mimamsa, often confused with a separate Darshana, is Vedanta based on the Upanishads, crafted around the fourth century BCE.
Tantra, another Darshana, deals with the transcendence of human nature from the current level of evolution to transcendental knowledge, experience, and awareness. Tantra systems overlap with yoga darshana.
Carvaka, the eighth darshana, is considered the current philosophy. Its essential nature is to accept only what is visible and accurate, rejecting what is beyond the scope of receptivity—essentially practical science as we know it. Upanishads are texts addressing human behavior, knowledge, expression, and realization. With over a hundred major Upanishads, including around 20 specifically about Yoga, each text describes an integrated and balanced lifestyle, a harmonious frame of mind, and relevant spiritual concepts.
Diverse darshanas, as described by various scholars, elucidate the philosophical landscape of India, ranging from Vedanta’s focus on Reality to Samkhya’s exploration of cosmology. Each school contributes unique perspectives on human nature, logic, atomism, and rightful conduct, forming a rich tapestry of Indian philosophical thought. The essence of Darshana goes beyond philosophy; it extends to personal experience and self-realization. Sanatana living incorporates various philosophical ideas, all converging on the common goal of freedom and ultimate awareness of Reality. “Sanatana” denotes an eternal tradition, representing an enduring truth recognized and experienced by ancient seers who chose not to institutionalize these Darshanas into separate religions.
Archaeological Evidence of Yoga
Archaeological findings from the Harappan culture, including seals depicting individuals in yogic postures, suggest that Yoga has been practiced for over 40,000 years. These seals, unearthed from sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, provide evidence of an advanced civilization with a culture closely aligned with contemporary Hinduism.
Figures seated in meditative poses on these seals imply the existence of yoga postures and practices. The yogic posture depicted in a famous seal illustrates a meditator with a straight spine, folded legs, and hands in a chin mudra—a yogic gesture or seal. This archaeological evidence places Yoga’s origins in ancient times, although specific dates remain challenging to ascertain.
Yoga’s Role in the Vedas, Upanishads, Consecutive Literature
Chronologically, the Vedas, an ancient oral tradition eventually transcribed in Sanskrit, precede the Upanishads— treatises for mystics—and Tantra texts. The Vedas, authorless and divided into Dvaita (dualism) and Advaita (non-dualism) schools of thought, contain references to Yoga. The Upanishads, considered among the oldest scriptures, focus on the essence of the Vedas and explore concepts like prana, chakras, and nadis.
Early Upanishads delve into subtle energy flows and psychospiritual elements, echoing Tantric teachings. The Puranas, containing historical narratives, also reference Yoga. The Upanishads emphasize self-discovery through union or Yoga, describing the prana energy, psychic pathways, Kundalini energy, and the Aum mantra.
The Upanishads, emphasizing self-realization and the journey within, are crucial in shaping subsequent literature and philosophical thought. The post-Vedic era centers around these mystic treatises, providing a foundation for the evolution of yoga philosophy and practice.
The Mahabharata and the Ramayana, two significant epics, chronologically follow the Upanishads but precede the time of Gautam Buddha. Composed approximately 3,500 years ago, these epic texts, particularly the Mahabharata, extensively use “yoga” and “yogi.” While seemingly not directly focused on Yoga, these epics explore themes of dharma, human personality, and internal/external conflicts faced by characters, symbolically touching on yoga principles. The Bhagavad Gita, found within the Mahabharata, delves into three yogic paths—Karma, Bhakti, and Jnana—explained by Krishna to Arjuna on the battlefield. This sacred text uses metaphors, like the chariot and horses, to illustrate the human struggle with external senses (horses) and the observing mind (charioteer), emphasizing the Self as the observer beyond the mind.
Other texts, such as the Haritaayana Samhita (Tripura Rahasya) and Yoga Vasishtha, further expand on yoga philosophy. The Haritaayana Samhitta explores the mystery beyond the trinity principle and aligns with the non-dual or Advaita school of Indian metaphysics. Yoga Vasishtha, an offshoot of the Ramayana, delves into spiritual inspiration, creation aspects, and the connection to higher consciousness. It addresses the “who am I?” inquiry, discussing meditation, Jnana yoga, and acknowledging Pranayama as a method for mind control.
In the common era (100 BCE to the seventeenth century CE), yoga teachings diversified, giving rise to various schools of philosophy. Notable texts include the Yoga Sutras of Maharishi Patanjali (circa 400 BCE), which systematized yoga practices, and later texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika (fifteenth century) and the Gheranda Samhita (seventeenth century) under the Advaita school.
In sum, while all six darshanas offer pathways to understanding Reality, the Vaisheshika Darshana explains existence through physics principles. Samkhya and Yoga Darshana share a metaphysical goal of liberation, with classical Yoga often regarded as a new Samkhya philosophy tradition that emerged in the third to fifth centuries CE. This comprehensive exploration of Yoga’s age and origins elucidates its profound connection with Indian philosophical traditions, delving into historical literature for insights. The journey unfolds through the rich landscape of six primary darshanas, each contributing a unique perspective on human nature, logic, atomism, and rightful conduct. From Vedanta’s focus on Reality to Samkhya’s exploration of cosmology, the diverse darshanas form a tapestry of Indian philosophical thought, extending beyond mere philosophy to personal experience and self-realization. The enduring relevance of Yoga in our contemporary age is reinforced by its evidence-based approach, contributing to its widespread popularity for health and spiritual pursuits. From archaeological evidence to the Vedas, Upanishads, and subsequent literature, this exploration traces Yoga’s evolution, emphasizing its integral role in shaping the philosophical landscape of India.
Reference
Excerpts from Kanojia, A. (2022). The Politics and Promise of Yoga: Contemporary Relevance of an Ancient Practice. Rowman & Littlefield.
Image: Sapta Chakra, from a Yoga manuscript (1899)