Introduction
In feminist discourse, a critical examination of the East and West reveals stark differences in the perception and treatment of the feminine. This paper explores the underlying factors that contribute to these distinctions, focusing on the impact of Western religious beliefs on the perception of femininity. While the East, particularly the Indian subcontinent, has a rich tradition of venerating the feminine, the West has historically marginalized it in favor of a monotheistic, masculine deity, and systematic efforts have been put in place to destroy the feminine to maintain the monopoly of the masculine.
The Divine Feminine Around the Globe
The concept of the sacred feminine, closely tied to the veneration of female deities, remains a recurring theme in ancient cultures worldwide. The worship and reference of the feminine are evident in the cultures of Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe, North and South America, and other indigenous communities. From the banks of the Nile in Ancient Egypt, where the goddess Isis symbolized motherhood and magic, to the temples of Greece, where Athena, Aphrodite, and Demeter embodied wisdom, love, and fertility, the sacred feminine found expression in mythology and religious practices. In Rome, Venus and Ceres held sway as goddesses of love and agriculture, while Mesopotamia worshipped Inanna, the Queen of Heaven and Earth. In India, many goddesses, from Saraswati to Laxmi to Kali, played pivotal roles in Hinduism, while Chinese mythology celebrated Nuwa as the creator of humanity. Indigenous cultures in the Americas, from the Aztecs to the Maya, revered goddesses like Tonantzin and Ixchel, underscoring the profound impact of the sacred feminine on spiritual and cultural traditions across the globe.
The sacred feminine spans the globe; it extended its influence into Celtic culture, Native American traditions, and Mesoamerican civilizations, each with its pantheon of goddesses and nature spirits. In indigenous Australian cultures, spirituality is deeply tied to the land, where the Earth is often personified as a nurturing mother figure, representing a form of sacred femininity. Some Dreamtime stories and creation myths feature female ancestral beings who played crucial roles in shaping the landscape and the world, reflecting elements of the Sacred Feminine. Celtic goddesses such as Brigid and Danu embodied fire, poetry, healing, and motherhood. Native American tribes recognized the significance of female deities associated with fertility, the Earth, and the moon, with beliefs varying among tribal cultures. Mesoamerican societies like the Maya and Aztecs celebrated Ixchel and Coatlicue as powerful representations of creation and fertility. Across this tapestry of ancient cultures, the sacred feminine illuminated women’s vital roles, fertility, and nurturing aspects of life, weaving a rich and diverse spiritual heritage that resonates today.
The Sacred Feminine in the East
In Taoism, the duality of Yin and Yang represents the cosmic balance, with Yin embodying qualities associated with the feminine, such as receptivity and darkness. Buddhists revere figures like Tara, a Bodhisattva representing compassion and Enlightenment. Shintoism, Japan’s indigenous religion, venerates female kami like Amaterasu, the sun goddess. Chinese folk religion embraces goddesses like Mazu and Guanyin, while Tibetan Buddhism emphasizes the significance of Tara as a compassionate and nurturing guide. In Shaktism, a sect of Hinduism, devotees worship Shakti, the divine feminine energy. Japanese Buddhism recognizes female Bodhisattvas like Kannon for their compassion. These diverse manifestations of the Sacred Feminine in the East highlight its enduring presence, intertwining spirituality, tradition, and religious practices while emphasizing feminine qualities, compassion, and nurturing aspects of the divine. In regions such as Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, parts of Bangladesh, and other parts of South and East Asia, the Devi or the feminine has been revered for centuries. This reverence extends to the principles of nature and creation, where the feminine is seen as the nurturer and sustainer of existence. Mother Nature (Prakriti), goddesses like Annapurna and Laxmi, and the concept of the three gunas (tamasic, rajasic, and satvik) are all integral aspects of this worldview. This holistic perspective is embedded in practices like Yoga and Ayurveda, where an individual’s constitution (Prakriti) plays a central role in health and well-being.
Historical Marginalization of the Feminine in the West
The historical marginalization of the feminine in the Western world has been a multifaceted and enduring phenomenon deeply entrenched in societal structures, cultural norms, and philosophical underpinnings. This marginalization can be attributed to several key factors:
- Patriarchal systems, a dominant feature of Western societies, have systematically concentrated power and authority within male domains, relegating women to subordinate roles.
- Religious doctrines, particularly within Christianity, have historically reinforced traditional gender hierarchies, with narratives such as Eve’s story legitimizing women’s subordination.
- Philosophical and scientific paradigms, particularly during the Enlightenment, often positioned masculine attributes, such as reason and logic, as superior to feminine attributes, such as emotion and intuition. These beliefs perpetuated the devaluation of the feminine within intellectual discourse, leading to societal marginalization.
- Social and legal structures have systematically discriminated against women, depriving them of equal rights, educational opportunities, property ownership, and political participation.
These systemic inequities have further reinforced the marginalization of the feminine.
Fourthly, gender stereotypes deeply embedded in Western culture have perpetuated the devaluation of feminine traits, portraying nurturing, empathy, and vulnerability as less esteemed than traditionally masculine traits, such as strength, assertiveness, and dominance. Fifthly, historical events such as the witch hunts in Europe during the Early Modern period exemplify the demonization and persecution of women, reflecting a systemic disregard for the feminine. Furthermore, literary and cultural representations frequently depicted women in limited, stereotypical roles, reinforcing conventional gender norms and expectations. Lastly, the struggle for women’s rights and gender equality, marked by significant progress during the 19th and 20th centuries, has encountered resistance that stresses the deeply ingrained historical marginalization of the feminine in Western societies. It is imperative to acknowledge that while substantial strides have been made toward gender equity, the legacy of historical marginalization continues to manifest in various aspects of contemporary Western society and culture.
In contrast, the history of the feminine in the West is marked by its systematic erasure to promote monotheism centered around a singular masculine god. This erasure is evident in the witch trials and massacres of those who worshipped goddesses in ancient cultures. For example, the witch-hunting phenomenon, which mainly targeted women, resulted in the persecution and execution of countless females across Europe. The Catholic Church and other denominations played a significant role in identifying heretics and perpetuating these atrocities, and the effects are still evident in contemporary society.
The Feminist Movement: East and West
The Western feminist movement can be traced back to its beginnings in 1848 when Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony initiated efforts to secure voting rights for women. In the Western context, feminism has been influenced by Marxist ideology, which has sometimes resulted in the exclusion or “othering” of the feminine gender. This divisive mindset has, at times, hindered the full integration of women into society. In the United States, women gained the right to vote with the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, finally ending gender-based disenfranchisement. However, it took several decades and the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s to effectively enforce this right and combat discriminatory practices such as poll taxes and literacy tests.
While the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States, the protection of voting rights for Native Americans faced challenges. It was fully realized in various legal battles, and the Voting Rights Act 1965 was enacted. Asian immigrants also encountered discriminatory laws that restricted their ability to become naturalized citizens and participate in voting. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 played a significant role in removing many of these discriminatory provisions.
In contrast, India granted full suffrage to women in 1947, with female leaders and activists from all walks of life and caste contributing to the country’s struggle for independence. However, in the 1970s, Indian feminists began to adopt Western Marxist feminist ideologies, a shift that marked a departure from their unique historical and cultural context. Unfortunately, This fad rendered the feminist movement forced and ineffective, as the feminine was never systematically marginalized in Indian society. What should have been education-related and literacy-related initiatives were misidentified as female empowerment, thus trying to force the ill-fitting idea of Marxism (read misconstrued notions of equality) upon the Indian context.
Unidimensionalism in Feminism
The concept of Unidimensionalism can be applied to examine the factors that led to the adoption of Western feminist ideologies by Eastern, primarily Indian feminists. It points out the overemphasis on biological aspects of gender, which isolates women and necessitates a movement to reintegrate them into society. The Unidimensionalism theory also facilitates a critical evaluation of the significant differences in the treatment and perception of women, as well as ideas of justice and equality between the East and the West. Suggesting that the understanding of proponents of any ideological or cultural movement should be based on their own words and actions (read: native) is a generally non-controversial notion; thus the proposition of this framework to analyze feminism.
In the Western world, there is a noticeable trend of diminishing the importance of femininity, mainly facilitated by technological advancements and what is termed ‘progressive ideology.’ One key example of this is the gradual shift of a fundamental aspect of femininity – reproductive function – towards the domain of the medical industry. As a result, women are losing their essential roles in this aspect of life. Essentially, technology is being used to sideline women. Furthermore, the concept of what defines a female is now a subject of extensive debate and scrutiny, thanks to the increasing number of gender categories. The blurring of gender boundaries and a lack of agreed-upon definition of gender has led to biological males identifying as females, seemingly overshadowing the traditional understanding of femininity in the West.
Conclusion
In summary, the historical treatment of the feminine in the East and West reflects profound disparities in cultural and religious beliefs. While the East celebrates the sacred feminine and its role in creation, the West has a history of marginalization and persecution. The adoption of Western feminist ideologies in India, under the Unidimensionalism framework, presents challenges due to its incongruence with the Indian context. Recognizing the importance of a holistic approach beyond mere biological factors is essential for advancing gender empowerment and human rights globally.
Source:
Full article with citations and references: Kanojia, A. (2023). Indicism – A Theoretical Framework and Three Critical Theories for New Indology. International Journal of Indology, 1(1).
Image: Queen Avantibai; Indian postal stamp